Assyria was a predominant force in Mesopotamia for close to two thousand years, from around 2600 BCE to its collapse in 609 BCE. Astrology and divination influenced major decisions throughout the empire. Examining the livers of sacrificed animals (hepatomancy) was the most common form of divination. Kings used liver omens and astrological observations whenever they had to make important decisions, such as deciding whether or not to appoint a specific individual to high office or when and if to wage war.

One of the largest libraries of cuneiform texts describing this process was collected by Ashurbanipal the “scholar” king (Brereton 2020). His library included divination records, oracles, interpretations of ominous events, and hundreds of letters from astrologers spread all over the empire whose job was to inform the king on celestial observations such as eclipses and the appearance and disappearance of specific planets and stars (Framm 2023). Ashurbanipal also recruited diviners and exorcists to advise him. 

Another royal who relied heavily on astrology and divination was Ashurbanipal’s grandmother, Naqia. She would’ve been one of many royal wives when she gave birth to her son Esarhaddon (Ashurbanipal’s father) in 713 BCE. Royal wives likely competed for the king’s favor hoping to have their sons named heir (Brereton 2020). Esarhaddon was a sickly child, and scholars believe Naqia successfully employed divination and astrology to bolster the king’s positive opinion of him (Cook 2017).

Naqia’s son Esarhaddon became his father’s heir and went on to rule the Assyrian Empire 681-669 BCE. King Esarhaddon was chronically ill and depressed much of that time. Scholars credit Naqia for making Esarhaddon’s reign successful through her political cunning and curated application of astrology and hepatomancy to guide him (Cook 2017). 

Esarhaddon died unexpectedly in August, 669 BCE. A solar eclipse was visible as a partial eclipse in Mesopotamia on August 6. This solar eclipse, symbolizing withdrawal of the sun god Shamash, would’ve been a forbidding omen, especially coinciding with the king’s death.

In addition to adeptly employing divination for her political ends, Naqia was “fabulously rich.” As queen mother, she received a share of the royal tribute and owned extensive agricultural estates, had residences in all the major cities of Assyria, and a large staff including high-ranking administrators and military personnel. In many ways, Naqia acted “like a king herself” (Framm 2023).

After her son Esarhaddon’s death, Naqia helped ensure succession of his chosen heir, Ashurbanipal, with a royal treaty enforcing the loyalty of all Assyrian subjects. The treaty was “imposed on all the people of Assyria on behalf of Ashurbanipal, her favorite grandson.” It specified that “any ugly word of rebellion or insurrection” against the new king be reported to Naqia “his (grand)mother and Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, your lord” (Brereton 2020).

It was highly unusual for anyone other than a king to write treaties, and notable that Naqia lists herself first and on equal footing with her teenage grandson.

Ashurbanipal was crowned king of Assyria in December, 699 BCE at the age of sixteen and ruled for thirty-eight years. Although he is widely lauded for his extensive library, scholars describe the king as a spiteful, brutal sadist, known for demeaning his enemies in vicious public spectacles (Framm 2023). King Ashurbanipal’s power was absolute, invested in him “by the divine will of Ashur,” the supreme deity of Assyria or “Land of Ashur” (Brereton 2020).

Shortly after her grandson Ashurbanipal was crowned, Naqia disappeared from the public record. It’s possible her fate was foretold:

A lunar eclipse occurred in the house of Leo on January 16, 698 BCE (visible as a partial eclipse in Mesopotamia). Venus, associated with the goddess Ishtar/Inanna, made an interior transit May 22, 669, which means it would’ve disappeared behind the sun 263 days later in early February. Venus’s disappearance behind the sun is associated with the Heavenly Queen Ishtar/Inanna’s descent into the underworld where Ereshkigal rules the dead. This suggests the powerful queen mother Naqia might have also descended into death around this time.

Binding restless ghosts with incantations was another common practice in ancient Assyria and there are numerous ritual texts against ghosts of the dead. Ashurbanipal’s library included “a long compilation of incantations against ghosts [and] letters from exorcists” (Framm 2023). King Ashurbanipal must have employed such incantations if he murdered his grandmother Naqia. 

Whatever her fate, Naqia’s luck ran out sometime in the winter of 698, or 2,722 years ago. But her remarkable story (and that of her cruel scholar grandson) lives on.

Resources:

Brereton, Gareth, et. al. 2020. I am Ashurbanipal: King of the World, King of Assyria London: Thames & Hudson.

Cook, Gregory D.. 2017. “Naqia and Nineveh in Nahum: Ambiguity and the Prostitute Queen,” Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 136, No. 4 (Winter 2017). 

Framm, Eckhart. 2023. Assyria: The Rise and Fall of the World’s First Empire. New York: Basic Books.

[Lyri Ahnam channels poetry and mythic fantasy stories from the ancestral home of the Illiniwek in southern Illinois. She enjoys researching ancient Pagan practices and telling stories of underrepresented mythic characters. Lyri is currently writing a novel set during the fall of the Assyrian Empire. Read more of her work at LyriAhnam.com.]